Transpersonal Psychology

The Fourth Force of Psychology

Maslow added transpersonal psychology to the first three forces in Western psychology-behaviorism psychoanalysis, and humanistic psychology. For Maslow, behaviorism and psychoanalysis were too limited in scope to form the basis of a complete psychology of human nature. Psychoanalysis is derived largely from studies of psychopathology. Behaviorism has attempted to reduce the complexities of human nature to simpler principles but has failed to address fully such issues as values, consciousness, and love.

In the early 1960's, humanistic psychology emerged from the work of Maslow, Rogers, and other theorists concerned with psychological health and effective functioning. Many humanistic psychologists have used Maslow's theories, especially his work on self-actualization, as the framework for their writing and research.

In 1968, Maslow called attention to the limitations of the humanistic model. In exploring the farthest reaches of human nature, he found that there were possibilities beyond self-actualization. When peak experiences are especially powerful, the sense of self dissolves into all awareness of a greater unity. The term self-actualization did not seem to fit these experiences.

Transpersonal psychology contributes to the more traditional concerns of the discipline an acknowledgement of the spiritual aspect of human experience. This level of experience has been described primarily in religious literature, in unscientific and often theologically biased language. A major task of transpersonal psychology is to provide a scientific language and a scientific framework for this material.

Transpersonal Psychology examines a broad range of concepts (Walsh & Vaughan, 1993). Some of its key concepts are:

1. PEAK EXPERIENCES, a term originated by Maslow (e.g., 1971). He wanted to study mystical experiences and other experiences of optimal psychological health, but he felt the connotations of religion and spirituality would be too limiting. Therefore, he began using "peak experiences" as a neutral term. A peak experience has some (but not necessarily all) of the following characteristics:
   • very strong or deep positive emotions akin to ecstasy,
   • a deep sense of peacefulness or tranquility,
   • feeling in tune, in harmony, or at one with the universe,
   • a feeling of deeper knowing or profound understanding,
   • a sense that it is a very special experience that would be difficult or impossible to describe adequately in words (i.e., ineffability).
   
   

   Research on peak experiences has identified the frequency, triggers, psychosocial correlates, and consequences of peak experiences. For instance, virtually everyone in representative surveys reports some kind of peak experience, and a small percentage reports profound peak experiences similar to classical mystical experiences. It has also been shown that people tend not to discuss peak experiences with each other. The most common reasons were that they felt it was a personal and intimate experience which they did not want to share, that they did not have adequate words to describe it, and that they were afraid others might devalue the experience or think they were crazy (Davis, et al., 1991). This under-reporting of peak experiences may count in part for their exclusion from much of psychology and certainly a focus on peak experiences has been discouraged by most approaches to psychology. Transpersonal Psychology encourages the inclusion of peak experiences as important windows on mental health and full functioning as a human being.

   Toward the end of his life, Maslow also introduced the term "plateau experiences." These are positive experiences that are of longer duration and lower intensity than peak experiences. Meditative states and quiet reverie are examples. He also made mention of "nadir experiences," the opposite of peak experiences. These are intensely negative experiences which turn around into positive experiences. This work on identifying and categorizing transpersonal experiences has been continued. Walsh and Vaughan (1993) and others have begun a systematic mapping of the their characteristics.
   

2. SELF-TRANSCENDENCE, states of consciousness in which the sense of self is expanded beyond the ordinary definitions and self-images of the individual personality. Self-transcendence refers to the direct experience of a fundamental connection, harmony, or unity with others and the world. The "self" which is transcended is the personality or ego-self, the collection of self-concepts, self-images, and roles which develops through one's interactions. Transpersonal approaches hold that this ego-self is not the same as one's true nature or essence and that self-transcendence opens one to the experience of this deeper nature.
   
   The notion of self-transcendence is a key part of Maslow's thinking and the roots of transpersonal psychology. Toward the end of his career, Maslow's transpersonal interests led him to add a sixth level to his widely-known Hierarchy of Needs. This sixth level, a meta-need for self-transcendence and a motivation toward peak experiences, extends beyond the deficiency needs and the need for self-actualization. He found that such a need was present for some but not all selfac tualizing persons. A sense of self-transcendence is a defining characteristic of mystical experiences.
   

3. OPTIMAL MENTAL HEALTH, beyond what is considered possible by other approaches to psychology. Mental health is usually seen as adequate coping with environmental demands and resolution of personal conflicts, but the view of transpersonal psychology also includes a fuller awareness, self-understanding, and self-fulfillment. Optimal mental health also includes the notion of serving others. Peak and plateau experiences are brief examples of optimal states of mental health, but expanded awareness, freedom from internal conflicts and deficiency, and authentic contact with others are possible as enduring traits also. Transpersonal psychology seeks to explore and validate states that have been termed enlightenment, awakening, or liberation by the spiritual disciplines (Walsh and Vaughan, 1993).
   

4. SPIRITUAL EMERGENCY, a disturbing experience resulting from a spiritual experience (or "emergence"). In general, transpersonal psychology holds the view that psychological crises can be part of a healthy awakening and that they are not always signs of psychopathology. Closely related to this is a view that the person is intrinsically healthy and that this health may manifest in ways that look pathological. Within the most pathological thinking and behavior is a core that is healthy. Transpersonal psychotherapy seeks to draw out and support this core.
   
   A specific example of a transpersonal view of psychological crisis has been developed by Stan Grof, who has made other important contributions to transpersonal theory, and Christina Grof (Grof & Grof, 1989). They recognized that a transpersonal experience, or spiritual emergence, under certain conditions, may be so disturbing and unsettling that it feels more like a spiritual emergency with many characteristics of several psychopathology (see also Bragdon, 1987). Lukoff (1985) and others have shown that it is useful to differentiate "mystical experiences with psychotic features" (MEPF) from brief reactive psychosis and mania. Based in part on these studies, the new version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV) contains the category of "Psychospiritual Problems" which include the notion of MEPF. The Grofs and others have developed guidelines for caring for someone in a spiritual emergency, recognizing both the person's immediate distress and the potential for profound growth. For those, such as the woman described at the beginning of this paper who have been misdiagnosed as having a psychotic breakdown when they were having a spiritual breakthrough, that distinction can make an enormous difference.
   

5. DEVELOPMENTAL SPECTRUM, a notion which incorporates many of the con cepts of psychology and philosophy into a transpersonal framework. Philosophically, this model is an example of the Perennial Philosophy. This view suggests that there are levels of reality, from material to psychological/mental to spiritual and that each successive level incorporates the properties of previous levels along with new emergent properties. It has been the basis for most philosophical and spiritual systems as well as being found in virtually all psychological approaches (Wilber, 1993).
   
   Psychologically, this model builds on various descriptions of developmental stages, such as those of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Maslow, Loevinger, Kohlberg, and Gilligan. Psychological, cognitive, motor, social, and moral development proceeds through a predictable sequence of stages. Transpersonal Psychologists suggest those models are ac curate as far as they go but that they usually stop short of a complete understanding. For instance, most psychological models consider the formation of a stable, integrated, and individuated ego to be the final stage of development. Transpersonal Psychology explores stages of personality development that extend beyond the individual ego into transpersonal realms. The Developmental Spectrum Model (e.g., Wilber, Engler, & Brown, 1987) distinguishes "Prepersonal" stages of development, prior to the development of a stable sense of self, "Personal" stages, wherein the development and refinement of an individual sense of self is achieved, and "Transpersonal" stages, based on identification with a whole that is larger than the individual ego. It is also noteworthy that, independent of Transpersonal Psychology, some developmental theorists such as Kohlberg and Erikson, are extending their models into transpersonal areas.
   

6. MEDITATION, practices for focusing or quieting mental processes and fostering transpersonal states. Just as conditioning is a key method in behaviorism and interpretation and catharsis are key methods in psychoanalysis, meditation is a key method for Transpersonal Psychology. Adapted from spiritual traditions in the East and the West, most forms of meditation involve either focused attention on one object (such as one's breath or a word repeated silently) or mindful attention to all contents of awareness. The specific techniques differ, but both forms of meditation have the ultimate goal of expanded awareness and self-transcendence. Self-transcendence, exploring the nature of the mind and identity, and expanding the sense of self have been the traditional uses of meditation and continue to be its primary value in a transpersonal framework. However, meditation is often used as a relaxation or psychotherapeutic technique as well. A great deal of empirical research has been published in recent years describing and validating various effects of meditation, both for self-regulation and expanding consciousness. Whether or not transpersonal systems include a formal meditation practice (and most do), training and working with moment-to-moment awareness is the one of the foundations of Transpersonal Psychology.

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